Chapter 1- Overview

In late 1993 the Northwest Florida Water Management District, 1000 Friends of Florida, and the Florida Coastal Management Program teamed up to complete a comprehensive resource assessment and greenway protection plan for the St. Marks and Wakulla rivers. The watershed of these two rivers is the next project listed on Northwest Florida Water Management District's Surface Water Improvement and Management Plan (SWIM) priority list. The Florida Greenways Program of 1000 Friends of Florida and the Conservation Fund is conducting a three year study of the Apalachee region and joined the District in emphasizing the significance of the St. Marks watershed in terms of the diverse productive natural resources, scenic recreational resources, and the historical and cultural assets. The drainage basins of the St. Marks River and its largest tributary, the Wakulla River, comprise the St. Marks Watershed (see Figure 2 - Project Boundary Map).

Because of the relatively undeveloped nature along these rivers, there is an opportunity to take a proactive approach to develop effective long term conservation strategies for these two rivers. Unlike many south and central Florida rivers which are already largely developed or degraded by development, the St. Marks and Wakulla rivers currently have relatively good water quality which supports healthy fresh and saltwater ecosystems, including an important commercial and recreational fisheries (Hand and Paulic 1992 b).

The opportunity exists for interested citizens and local, regional and state officials to strengthen river stewardship efforts by conserving natural greenway corridors along the St. Marks and Wakulla rivers. Because it is cheaper and easier to prevent water quality degradation than it is to clean it up, efforts should be initiated now to conserve the existing greenways along these rivers.

The St. Marks and Wakulla rivers have many other positive attributes besides good water quality. The river and their associated swamp forest, sloughs, and marshes, support an abundance of wildlife. The port Town of St. Marks is dependent upon the St. Marks River channel to support shipping as well as commercial and recreational fishing activities. The natural beauty and clean waters of this area draw many people to live, work and enjoy the watershed's diverse recreational opportunities. Conserving the natural greenway corridor along the rivers will help maintain their aesthetic and recreation appeal while preserving the ecological function of the riverine forest system.

This river system provides habitat for hundreds of different species of plants and animals who share the river and its banks with people and their homes. The ecological aspects of the rivers should be managed in perpetuity because a healthy functioning ecosystem not only benefits the plants and animals, but it also benefits people.

There have been no comprehensive studies made on the St. Marks and Wakulla rivers, but fortunately these rivers have characteristics similar to other more extensively studied Florida river systems. This report assesses the natural, recreational and historic resources within the St. Marks and Wakulla River Watershed and offers recommendations for conserving the greenway along the two river systems, including :

* a description of the greenway concept and the benefits greenways can provide the region' communities;

* documentation of existing watershed land uses and land cover through analysis of satellite imagery using the District's Geographic Information System (GIS);

* an analysis of nonpoint source pollution;

* an assessment of the natural, recreational and historical resources of the watershed;

* greenway opportunities in the watershed;

* a review of local government comprehensive plans;

* a review of state programs that could assist with greenway conservation ;

* recommendations for the development of the St. Marks and Wakulla River Greenways and;

* citizen concerns regarding greenway planning .

What is a Greenway? A greenway is a corridor of protected open space that is managed for conservation and/or recreation. The common characteristic of greenways is that they all go somewhere. Greenways follow natural land and water features, like ridges or rivers, or human landscape features like abandoned railroad corridors or canals. They link natural reserves, parks, cultural and historic sites with each other, and in some cases with populated areas. Greenways not only protect environmentally sensitive lands and wildlife, but also can provide people with access to outdoor recreation and enjoyment close to home. Greenways are a land and water conservation tool that enhance open space and recreational opportunities, provide economic and community benefits, and facilitate intergovernmental cooperation and ecosystem management.

Greenways are a land and water conservation tool that can enhance open space, and recreational opportunities, provide economic and community benefits, and improve intergovernmental coordination. Figure 3 provides the definition of a greenway adopted by the Florida Greenways Commission. Greenways can be classified on a continuum from ecological to conservation to recreational greenways. Ecological greenways are designed and maintained primarily for wildlife habitat protection. Typically, development is limited in the ecological greenway because these greenways are often located in pristine natural areas where there is little human encroachment or urbanization.

Conservation greenways provide both natural resource protection and recreation benefits. A conservation greenway is a linear landscape feature that facilitates biologically effective transport of both animals and plants between larger patches of habitat dedicated to conservation (Soule 1991). Soule points out that corridors / greenways are transitional habitat and that they only need to provide the necessary resources for plant or animal movement from one area to another (Soule 1991). However, if the greenway corridor is large enough it can also provide for wildlife habitat. Trails and other passive recreation opportunities can be developed within a conservation greenway (Florida Greenways Program 1992 a).

Recreational greenways are primarily managed for public access and enjoyment through trails. Trails are marked routes that provide access to and appreciation of the values of natural areas and greenspaces, present diverse resource based outdoor recreational opportunities, and enhance the understanding of historical sites and cultural diversity.

Figure 4, Labaree 1992.

The landscape in the watershed is a series of interactions between plants, animals, the soil and water. A healthy environment depends on maintaining these interactions (Labaree 1992). When planning for future growth the interactions and natural connections of landscape need to be considered. Greenways can provide landscape linkages to recreational trails. There are the six ways greenways can function as ecological and recreational units and these concepts are based on landscape ecology principals.

Habitat

Greenways can function as wildlife habitat, but this will depend on the size of the greenway. The nature of the surrounding land also effects the function of habitat suitability. Generally, the larger a greenway, the more species it will support, because many interior species will not tolerate competition from edge species. Edge species are those plants and animals that are found in open or developed land. They can live almost anywhere and feed on a wide variety of foods. Interior forest species often have very specific diets and habitat requirements. The Pinhook Swamp connecting the Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge in Georgia to the Osceola National Forest in Florida is an excellent example of how greenways offer habitat protection and preservation. The Pinhook Greenway functions as a protected large landscape linkage between the larger core habitat areas of the swamp and national forest providing habitat for large predators such as the Florida Panther and the Florida Black Bear.

Conduits

The typical conservation greenway is a linear feature providing for animal and plant dispersion across the landscape. These greenways function as wildlife conduits by providing safe protected passages between conservation areas. By increasing the effective size of the habitat and providing wildlife access to varied areas, conduit greenways provide a mechanism countering the effects of habitat fragmentation caused by urbanization. By increasing the effective size of the habitat, conduit greenways can help species meet their home range needs by linking parks and conservation areas with a network of protected open space. The greenway itself may not actually be large enough to serve as habitat. However, if the greenway links to other larger parcels of land, then the linkage itself increases the effective habitat by reconnecting the land.

River corridors and ridgelines are typical examples of conduit greenways. The linear dendritic pattern of riparian forests makes them ideal collectors and transporters of wildlife across the regional landscape. Ideally, riparian greenways would be designed to be wide enough to encompass a broad range of habitat types for aiding plant and animal movement (Noss and Harris 1989).

Greenways can also function as recreational conduits by providing an interconnected network of trails or scenic highways for the purposes of linking people with points of interest, scenic vistas, natural, cultural and historic resources or for providing wilderness solitude and personal challenges. The Appalachian Trail is an excellent example of a greenway functioning as a recreational conduit. The Tallahassee-St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail, the Blue Ridge Parkway, canopy roads, and urban river/bay walks are additional examples of how greenways function as recreational conduits. Greenways also provide opportunities for alternative transportation through multi-purpose trails. Trails are different from greenways in that they do not exist alone, but instead traverse greenways, parks and other open space areas. Trails are defined as linear corridors, on land or water, with protected status and public access for recreation or transportation (National Park Service 1990). Trails link people with the natural and cultural environment.

Barriers

Greenway vegetation can function as barriers to unsightly views and noise if large enough in size. By protecting scenic vistas and landscapes, greenways can provide a sense of place or character for a particular area such as the canopy roads and historic plantations in north Florida and south Georgia's Red Hills Region. Conservation easements along scenic roads and improved urban river fronts such as San Antonio's River Walk, could function as barrier greenways.

Filters

Greenways can function as natural filters. Riverine greenways are receivers of nutrients from uplands and feeder streams. Riverine greenways can filter out nutrients, sediments, and other pollutants from stormwater runoff. This is dependent on the greenway's size and the type and quality of vegetation of the riparian greenway.

Woody plants will remove more nitrogen and phosphorous from nutrient rich run-off than non-woody species.

Sinks

Riparian greenways can act as nutrient sinks through the moderation of water flow in the associated river and the absorption of water and associated nutrients into the groundwater. These phenomena are especially evident during natural periodic floods that the river/stream experiences. Recreation based greenways can function as sinks by focusing use to an area designed to accommodate that use and minimize impacts on the areas requiring special protection.

Sources

Finally, greenways can function as biological sources. They can be sources of native seeds for wetland and upland species. If the surrounding land use patterns are urban or agricultural in nature, then the greenways function as linear seed banks. This becomes especially evident if the adjacent land is left fallow and undeveloped. Ecological succession would occur and the greenway could be the seed source for succession. Greenways can also provide protected water sources for wildlife and plants if they are located along rivers or streams.

Depending on the design and for whom or what the greenway is intended, a greenway could provide all six functions within the greenway or it may just serve one or two functions. All ecological greenway functions can occur only if the greenway is large or long enough and is connected to important habitat areas. Spatial scale is an important factor in considering greenway function. Scale or size determines what plants and animals can utilize the greenway and how well the greenway functions as a filter. If the greenway is too small it will not be of much use to large mammals or as a river or lakeside water filter.

No other conservation initiative effectively provides as many benefits or serves so many different purposes as greenways. Greenways not only help protect environmentally sensitive lands and wildlife habitat, but they also provide people with outdoor recreation opportunities. These benefits are highlighted in Figure 5.

Benefits Provided by Greenways * Decrease habitat fragmentation by connecting core habitat areas, * Provide plant and animal habitat, * Aid in reducing the effects of flooding by maintaining the natural floodway where water can naturally accumulate, * Maintain and improve river water quality through the natural filtration of nutrients and sediments, * Enhance recreation opportunities for land or water- based activities, * Provide for historic interpretation, * Offers a great business marketing tool for communities searching for ecotourism - related businesses, * Increase property values of homes and business located adjacent to the greenway, * Provide a measuring stick and marketing philosophy used by many communities to help determine the quality of life of their community, and * Provide people a quiet place from which to draw inner strength Figure 5 Sources: Greenways, Inc. and the Florida Greenways Program

Greenways and Water Quality Protection

Greenways provide water quality protection by conserving floodplains which provide water storage and conveyance during high water periods as well as filtering functions for stormwater runoff. The ecological integrity of a stream or river is largely affected by its response to sediment, nutrients, and other materials originating from the surrounding uplands (Binford and Buchenau 1993).

Greenway Benefits to Water Quality * Hydrologic Regulation of Stream Flow - Flood Management * Sediment and Nutrient Filtration / Control * Nutrient Removal * Water Temperature Regulation

Greenways also reduce the impacts of non-point pollution and reduce the impacts of flooding on property and human lives, while also providing for wildlife habitat.

Greenways help regulate water temperatures through shading by overhanging trees along the waterbody (Binford and Buchenau 1993) . This becomes more important in headwater areas where the streams can be almost entirely covered by the natural canopy of the forest. Many species of freshwater fish can not tolerate high water temperatures, because warmer waters carry less oxygen .

Greenways and Quality of Life

Greenways can improve the quality of life of the communities which they connect and pass through. One of the most important intangible benefits is conserving scenic areas, thus helping a community retain its distinctive character. Greenways are a tool to develop a sense of community by providing linkages to neighborhoods and parks. Greenways provide a meeting place for cultural exchange where citizens can talk to one another about events of the day. Greenways are now being incorporated into neotraditional neighborhood designs linking communities and parts of communities through a series of open spaces and parks. Greenways have the potential to get people out of their homes and cars and into the openness of their neighborhoods and communities where they can meet their neighbors.

There are also several tangible benefits of greenways. Studies have shown that real property values have increased 5 to 20 percent in residential areas located next to or within the greenway. The National Home Builders Association reported a 10 to 20 percent increase in value of residential property in the vicinity of park facilities (Greenways, Inc 1994). In Raleigh, North Carolina people selling their homes near greenways, often use the amenity value of the greenway as a marketing and sales tool (Greenways, Inc 1994).

Greenways in these cases can also aid property owners through whose lands they pass by making them eligible for reductions in real estate taxes, income and estate taxes. Usually, the owner would retain the ownership of the land, but would agree to limit development in the greenway through a conservation easement. Other options include purchasing the land in fee simple or leasing the land for a number of years (Greenways, Inc 1994).