Chapter 2 - Resource Assessment

Chapter 2 - Resource Assessment of the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers Watershed

Overview

The St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers Greenway Project is located in the Apalachee region of Florida's Big Bend and is a part of the larger Apalachee Greenways Project. The name of the Apalachee Region is borrowed from the Apalachee Bay which forms the Gulf of Mexico's coast of along Wakulla County and portions of Franklin and Taylor counties. Due to the Apalachee Bay's shallow waters, its remoteness and the protected lands and waters of the St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge, the Apalachee Region has one of Florida's most undeveloped coastlines. The Apalachee Region is also famous for its seafood, majestic live oaks, Florida's capital of Tallahassee with its universities, and its abundant natural, cultural and recreational resources which span from Thomasville, Georgia to the Gulf of Mexico.

The Apalachee region is home to a vast array of natural resource areas such as the St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge, Florida's largest national forest - the Apalachicola National Forest, extensive native stands of long leaf pine in the Red Hills Region of southern Georgia and northern Florida, and several Florida state parks, forests, recreation and historic sites. The Red Hills Region combined with the Apalachicola National Forest comprises Florida's largest nesting area for the threatened Red-cockaded Woodpecker. Over 600 colonies of Red-cockaded Woodpeckers occur within the National Forest having. The Apalachee region also provides excellent habitat for one of Florida's largest populations of Florida Black Bear.

Outstanding recreational opportunities abound in and associated with the region's many natural resource areas. The Apalachicola National Forest has over 100 miles of hiking and equestrian trails and 15 developed recreation areas. Approximately 100 miles of the Florida National Scenic Trail traverses the southern part of the region passing through the St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge and the Apalachicola National Forest. The 16 mile long Tallahassee - St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail travels from Tallahassee to the riverside Town of St. Marks near the Gulf of Mexico where it intersects the Florida National Scenic Trail. The proposed GF&A Rail Trail will run 53 miles from Tallahassee to Carrabelle passing through historical communities like Sopchoppy and Arran. The Apalachee region is renowned for its hunting and boating opportunities. The coastal marshes and beaches provide opportunities for sea kayaking, windsurfing and saltwater fishing. The St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge is an excellent place for bird watching.

Many historical places of interest are scattered throughout the region. The Red Hills area retains many historic plantations and buildings and a more traditional southern lifestyle. The communities of Quincy, Monitcello, Capps, Tallahassee, Thomasville, and Waukeenah have designated historic districts with many restored buildings on the National Historic Register. The canopy roads follow historic trade routes of 1800's and are some of the region's most distinctive features. The legacy of Spanish explorers and missionaries is interpreted through the Fort San Marcos de Apalache in St. Marks and the San Luis Mission in Tallahassee.

The threads that tie the Apalachee region together are the six rivers which drain the region - the Ochlockonee, Sopchoppy, Wakulla, St. Marks, Wacissa, and Aucilla rivers. These nutrient-rich rivers feed Apalachee Bays' productive fishery. These rivers have good water quality, little development along their banks, and offer excellent canoeing and fishing opportunities for the outdoor enthusiast. Spring fed rivers such as the Wacissa and Wakulla Rivers affords the opportunity to paddle along crystal clear waters, while the Ochlockonee, Sopchoppy, St. Marks and Aucilla Rivers are outstanding examples of tannin-stained blackwater rivers. The Woodville Karst Plain which is pocketed with sink holes and springs is in the southern portion of the Apalachee region. Wakulla Springs at Edward Ball Wakulla Springs State Park is one the world's largest first magnitude springs. The Leon Sinks Recreation Area in the Apalachicola National Forest provides visitors the opportunity to view many magnolia-lined sinks scattered through sand hills and pine forest. The rivers and springs are fed by the Floridan Aquifer which is replenished by an annual average rainfall of 60 inches.

The St. Marks Watershed, including the Wakulla River sub-basin, was chosen for greenway study and analysis by the Florida Greenways Program and the Northwest Florida Water Management District (NWFWMD) for several reasons. First, the District is investigating the feasibility of initiating a Surface Water Improvement and Management Program (SWIM) for the St. Marks watershed as its next SWIM project for the District. Secondly, the St. Marks and Wakulla rivers retain many of their outstanding natural characteristics which warrant conservation. These rivers have good water quality supporting a wide variety of freshwater and estuarine plants and animals. The entire riverine and estuarine system could be degraded without proper land use stewardship and growth management. The St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers Greenway Project also represents an area specific demonstration project for the larger Apalachee Greenways effort. The goal of the project is to identify ways to conserve the river corridors and in the ecological, hydrological and economic functions which benefit the entire Apalachee Region.

This project is intended to provide the framework for future greenway planning for the watershed. This project stresses a watershed approach to greenway and surface water protection because wildlife and nonpoint source water pollution do not recognize political boundaries. Many local, regional, state and private interests have been brought together to approach the greenway planning and mapping task as a regional effort. The following sections describe the resource assessment and mapping components of the project.

The project boundaries were selected through the analysis of United States Geological Survey (USGS) 1:24,000 quadrangle maps and other information from the Northwest Florida Water Management District. The project's watershed boundaries do not include the drainage basins of Lake Munson, Lake Lafayette or Lake Miccosukee. Since this project is a Coastal Zone Management Project, its concern is on direct surface water hydrologic boundaries and connections (see Figure 2 - Project Boundary). While these lakes do not have a direct surface water connection to either the St. Marks or the Wakulla rivers, these lakes do influence the water quality and quantity of the rivers through a groundwater interconnection. Analysis of these connections are beyond the scope of this study, both in terms of time and funding. Future analyses of the watershed should explore the relationships and connections between these lakes, the groundwater of the Floridan aquifer and the St. Marks and Wakulla rivers. The qualities of the St. Marks and Wakulla rivers can not be maintained without addressing the protection of both the interconnected surface and groundwater system.

A focus of this project is identifying and mapping land uses, significant natural, cultural and recreational resources in the watershed, and a nonpoint source pollution assessment. Computerized digital resource data identifying important habitat areas and public lands were provided by the Florida Natural Areas Inventory and the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission. Cultural and recreational data were collected by the Florida Greenway Program from various sources including the Florida Trail Association, the USDA Forest Service, the USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, the Florida Department of State, and local historians. Much of this data was gathered at an Apalachee Greenways mapping charrette held on May 21,1993 in Tallahassee. Resource experts were invited to the charrette to map cultural, historical, recreational and natural resources on 1:100,000 quadrangle USGS maps. The non-computerized resource data collected for the project were mapped on 1:24,000 quadrangle USGS maps and then digitized into to the NWFWMD Geographic Information System (GIS).

The criteria used in selecting the resources identified for the St. Marks Greenways Project includes the following:

Significant habitat for listed species,
Existing and proposed Conservation and Recreation Lands (CARL) lands
Significant natural features,
Significant cultural and historic sites (sensitive cultural and historical features on private lands were not mapped).
State parks, recreation areas, and historic sites where the public is invited to visit,
Public recreational trails including the Florida National Scenic Trail, the Tallahassee - St. Marks Historic Rail Trail and the Wakulla River State Canoe Trail,
Unique geologic features of the region, such as sink holes and springs ,
National Forest lands and recreation areas, and
Historic canopy roads open to the public .

Land Use Assessment

The purpose of the land use assessment was the identification and mapping of existing land use and land cover for the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed. The St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed (see Figure 2 -Project Boundary Map) includes approximately 200,000 acres or about 310 square miles and includes portions of Wakulla, Leon and Jefferson counties. This was the first time that the type, location, and amounts of land use and land cover have been mapped and quantified at this level of detail for this watershed. Land use data were also used as the basis for the nonpoint source assessment. While this assessment has provided more detailed information than any previous studies, it should be noted that this information is intended for use at the regional level. Specific land cover for a particular site should be verified through site inspection.

Satellite image GIS analysis of 1993 data was used to map existing land use and land cover throughout the watershed. These maps provided an overview of existing land uses and vegetation within the watershed (Appendix I). Existing land use and land cover were categorized using a state-wide classification system developed by the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) for consistency within Florida. (FDOT, 1985. See also Appendix II).

The FDOT land use categories were chosen rather than the local comprehensive plan land use designations for two reasons. First, FDOT system includes land cover categories, such as upland forest, which are not addressed by the local comprehensive plans. Second, the statewide system provides a way to consistently categorize land use within the watershed while the local land use categories differ between each city and county. For example, low density residential in one county may be one dwelling per five acres and in another county, low density residential may include up to two dwellings per acre. Therefore, the land use designations used in this assessment may differ from those used in the local comprehensive plan existing and future land use maps.

Land use and land cover were identified based on what could be "seen" by the satellite. Ownership information was not included in the land use assessment. For example, a tract of land which is considered to be silviculture by the owner might include areas mapped as silviculture, brush lands, upland forest, or wetlands based on the visible land cover. It should also be noted that the areas identified as wetlands in this assessment may not be jurisdictional wetlands. Although the FDOT categorizes land cover as either uplands or wetlands, many of the "upland" forests classes were found in low, wet areas and contained approximately equal portions of upland and wetland vegetation. More than 40 categories of land use and land cover were mapped. For the purposes of this report, the land use and land cover data has been aggregated into 15 categories. More detailed land use information is available on request from the NWFWMD

Land use and land cover were checked through ground truthing on site or by air photos. Sites were selected for ground truthing based on accessibility. Much of the land within the watershed is either private property or not accessible by road.

Results

Land use and land cover within the watershed are shown in Figure 6 - St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers Watershed Existing Land Use and Land Cover. For discussion purposes all percentages have been rounded. The land use and land cover categories are consistent with the FDOT system.

Urban. Urban land use comprises 13,439 acres (7 percent) of the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed. This contrasts sharply with 185,274 (93 percent) acres of non- urban land use within the entire watershed (see Table 1, Land Use Acreage and Percentage). Low density residential represented the largest number of urban acres and made up 6 percent of the total watershed (12,240 acres). However, the majority of the residential lands could not truly be characterized as "urban". With the exception of the towns of St. Marks, and Crawfordville and the Woodville community, the average residential density within the watershed is approximately one dwelling unit per three acres. There were no FDOT medium (2 to 5 units per acre) or high density (greater than 5 units per acre) residential uses identified within the watershed.

Remaining urban categories individually made up less than 1percent of the acreage in the watershed. These categories included commercial (499 acres), industrial (454 acres), and institutional (81 acres). Open urban land (111 acres) includes areas which have been cleared and have infrastructure but have not yet been developed. Recreational use (56 acres), includes the developed portions of Wakulla Springs. The undeveloped portions of the state park were classified by land cover type.

Non-urban. Non-urban land use accounted for 93 percent (185,274 acres) of the acreage in the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed (Table 1 - Land Use Acreage and Percentage). The greatest percentage of non-urban acreage in the watershed was silviculture (36 percent or 71,050 acres). Natural upland forests included 49,083 acres (25 percent). Approximately one third of the natural upland forests are comprised of xeric (scrub) oak. Much of the upland forest lands are either located in the Apalachicola National Forest are owned by the forestry industry. Agriculture, which includes both cropland and pastures, comprising 20,075 acres (10 percent) within the watershed. Transportation and utilities which comprising 125 acres (less than 1 percent) of the total watershed acreage. Lakes and waterways comprise 1,380 acres (less than 1 percent) of total watershed acreage, which are primarily the two rivers and their tributaries.

Wetlands comprise 36,003 acres (18 percent) of the watershed. Spoil/barren lands (166 acres) and beaches (20 acres) comprised less than 1 percent of the total acreage in the watershed and are located primarily within the coastal portion of the study area.

County Comparisons

The relative distribution of urban and non-urban land use and land cover for each county is presented in Table 2 - Urban and Non-Urban Land Use and Land Cover Acreage and Percentage by County. The majority of acreage within the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed is located within Wakulla County (48 percent). Leon County comprises 41 percent and Jefferson County comprises 10 percent of the total watershed acreage.

Figure 6: St. Marks And Wakulla Rivers Watershed Land Use and Land Cover

No urban land uses were identified within the Jefferson County portion of the watershed. The predominate non-urban land cover type within Jefferson County was wetlands, followed by silviculture, agriculture and natural upland forests. Leon County included more than 5,500 and Wakulla County, more than 7,800 acres of urban land use. The majority of these urban uses are very low density residential development. Leon County non-urban acreage includes silviculture (33,435 acres), wetlands (16,308 acres), natural upland forest (13,188 acres) and agriculture (9,680 acres).

Due to the presence of the Apalachicola National Forest and the St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge, the majority of non-urban land cover within Wakulla County is natural upland forests (32,061 acres). Silviculture (31,792 acres) includes almost as much area as upland forests. Wetlands comprise 13,483 acres within the Wakulla County portion of the watershed. These wetlands include coastal salt marsh as well as riverine wetlands (see Figure 6 - Existing Land Use and Land Cover).

Nonpoint Source Pollution Assessment

This section of the report presents an evaluation of existing nonpoint source (NPS) pollution contributions from land use within the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed. Increases in the nonpoint loading of this system could have serious effects on water quality. Nonpoint pollution sources include agriculture and silviculture activities present throughout the watershed and, runoff from various dirt roads intersecting tributaries. Additional nonpoint sources of pollution in the watershed include stormwater runoff, septic tank leachate and drainage from urban and residential development. Land use type and intensity are strongly related to NPS concentrations.

NPS pollution is a major, largely uncontrolled, cause of surface water degradation throughout Florida (Livingston et al. 1989). In north Florida, the progression of natural ecosystems to silvicultural, agricultural, and urban uses has resulted in increased NPS pollution impacts (Livingston et al. 1989). NPS pollutants in northwest Florida include pesticides, animal wastes, nutrients, and sediments (Wolfe et al. 1988). Pesticides and other contaminants can be dangerous to the aquatic ecosystem. Water quality changes affect wildlife habitat. Increased NPS pollution could adversely impact water quality and result in its recreational and habitat values being impaired or lost.

The land use assessment provided the information necessary to estimate NPS pollution loads for each land use and land cover type within the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed. The land use acreage information was used with loading rates to estimate loads for total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), five day biological oxygen demand (BOD5) and total suspended solids (TSS). The loading rates and NPS assessment methodology were derived from previous northwest Florida studies completed by the District (see Appendix III).

Objectives

The objective of this assessment was to estimate potential NPS loadings to the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers. Urban and non-urban activities, including residential, commercial and industrial development, agriculture and silviculture contribute to altered surface water quality and flows throughout the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed. These alterations in surface water characteristics may, in turn, negatively impact water quality and wildlife habitat within the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers.

NPS loadings from individual land uses must be characterized in terms of origin, rates, and potential impacts if water quality effects are to be accurately assessed based on land use. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) enable planning and resource management agencies to model current development trends and characterize associated potential water quality impacts. The present study was designed to identify potential water quality impacts to the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed resulting from nonpoint source (NPS) pollution associated with land uses within the watershed in Wakulla, Leon and Jefferson counties.

A review of nonpoint pollution sources within a watershed is essential to improving and managing water resources. This information is necessary for developing strategies to protect receiving waters. Watershed preservation and restoration plans must address NPS loadings to watershed systems and emphasize alternatives that reduce loadings of suspended sediment, nutrients, and contaminants. Many NPS pollutants can be controlled by compliance with recommended Best Management Practices (BMPs) and associated water quality standards.

Another issue of particular concern within the watershed is its topography and karstic nature. The relationships between ground and surface water in the study area are quite complex. These relationships have not been well documented through studies for this region. The relatively flat topography and highly karstic nature of this watershed are likely to significantly inhibit overland flow of stormwater runoff. Thus, the findings of this analysis should be verified through a water quality monitoring program and further study. A more thorough understanding of the hydrology and hydrogeology of this region would be helpful for development of water quality protection strategies.

Thus far there appear to have been no comprehensive studies that characterize the nonpoint source loading potentials within the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers system and the existing or potential water quality effects. Nonpoint pollution estimates for existing sources have not yet been documented for this particular area and previous studies have been conducted on such a large scale that the available information is difficult to apply to this specific locale.

The information generated by this study will be accessible to the appropriate state, regional and local government entities for guidance in formulating plans, rules, regulations, resolutions and/or ordinances relating to future watershed activities. These could include future land use controls and various other NPS pollution prevention strategies.

Methods

Existing land use and land cover within the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed were initially classified into more than 40 categories which included similar land use and land cover types. Due to the impracticality of developing and applying 40+ individual loading rates, the original categories were aggregated into 15 categories, based on similarities in loading characteristics. Previous NPS pollution studies were reviewed to corroborate loading rate estimates for water quality parameters and land use categories (Rains, et al. 1993).

All loading rate calculations were based on local rainfall data. Rainfall data for a five-year period from the closest available rainfall stations, (Tallahassee and Wewahitchka) were used to identify a watershed average annual rainfall of 58 inches.

Loading rates for total nitrogen, total phosphorus biological oxygen demand and total suspended solids were estimated for each land use category. Total loadings were reported in pounds/year (lbs/yr). Determining whether or not NPS loading from specific land uses or areas met water quality standards was not within the scope of this study.

Results
Generally, loading rates can be characterized by potential water quality impact per-acre as shown in Table 3. Urban uses, including commercial, industrial and high density residential, contribute the highest loadings per acre due primarily to stormwater runoff from parking areas and loading zones. Active agriculture, such as croplands also can contribute relatively high NPS loadings on a per acres basis. Less intensive uses, such as native forests, silviculture and low density residential have much lower per acre NPS loading rates.

This assessment estimated the total NPS load for each land use and land cover category based on the loading rates for each category and the amount of acreage for each category identified within the watershed. The total amount of NPS loadings for each land use is based on whether the land use loads at a high, medium or low rate and how much of that land use type is present in the watershed.

A comparison of estimated per-acre loading rates for each land use category with the land use map indicated urban land uses had the highest loadings and smallest area. Areas in non-urban land uses had the lowest per-acre estimated loading rates, but were associated with the highest total loadings, as a result of the large acreage of non-urban land.

Table 3. Relative pollutant loading rates and land uses in the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed

Total existing urban land use acreage accounted for approximately 7 percent of the area within the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed, but because urban uses load at a high rate, urban uses contributed more than 10 percent of the NPS loads (Appendix III, Table A-7).

Although estimated per-acre loading rates were lowest for silviculture areas, these areas included 36 percent of the acreage within the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed and thus accounted for the greatest total NPS pollutant load. Silviculture, upland forests and agriculture produced the majority of NPS loads due to the large amount of acreage for each present within the watershed. However, on a per-acre basis, silviculture and upland forests have the lowest NPS loadings. Thus, if silviculture and forest lands are converted to more intense land uses, such as agriculture or residential, the NPS pollutant load from the converted area will increase (see Table 3).

Because NPS pollution is difficult to control, the Environmental Protection Agency and the FDEP have agreed upon preventive management techniques which best protect the water resource and contribute to good overall forest and agriculture management (Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services 1991). Best Management Practices (BMPs) represent a practice or combination of practices determined to be the most effective means of preventing or reducing the amount of pollution generated by these nonpoint sources to a level compatible with water quality goals. Implementation of silviculture, agriculture and urban BMPs provide a means to protect water resources quality in the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed.

The impacts of silviculture and agriculture activities can be substantially reduced if recommended BMPs are comprehensively implemented and rigorously enforced. In an effort to clarify the use and interpretation of BMPs and to make their application more consistent, Florida forestry BMPs have recently undergone substantial revision to increase water resource protection. The use of BMPs will reduce NPS loadings from silviculture. The Division of Forestry is currently reassessing compliance and effectiveness of BMPs in an effort to more accurately reflect BMP compliance.

Three general options exist for abating NPS pollution from urban activity. The options involve prevention, treatment, and control measures, implemented as an integrated abatement approach (Wanielista 1975). In brief, prevention involves practices that are applied before problems arise; treatment involves complete or partial physical, chemical, and/or biological processes for minimizing impacts of stormwater; and control measures would involve reduction or control of pollution sources.

Ideally, limiting discharges from new developments to discharge that would have occurred under natural, undeveloped conditions, in addition to maintaining water quality standards, should result in no increases in NPS pollution.

Conclusions
Over the past ten years, there has been a 40 percent decline in water quality monitoring of stream reaches in Florida (Hand and Paulic 1992). This downward trend in monitoring threatens the ability to accurately assess the quality of Florida waters and emphasizes the need for more water quality data. The availability of site-specific loading rates in the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed and northwest Florida in general would provide the information necessary to more accurately estimate total NPS loadings to the watershed.

Results of this study emphasize the importance of controlling NPS pollution in both urban and non-urban settings. As expected, potential water quality impacts per-acre were greatest for the transportation/utilities, commercial, industrial, and high density residential urban land use categories. Although loading rates for non-urban categories were comparatively low on a per-acre basis, silviculture and agriculture practices may adversely impact quality in the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed.

The methodology described in this assessment integrated GIS, satellite imagery, land use plans, and land use/cover maps to model existing land use development patterns. GIS technology can also provide the means of using comprehensive plan future land use maps interactively with existing land use/cover data so location, type, and quantity of NPS loadings can be projected for future scenarios. The GIS can assist in estimating potential NPS loadings resulting from urban development designated by the comprehensive plan future land use map. The information and maps resulting from this assessment the regarding the relative intensity, size, and location of NPS pollution that can be made available to reviewing agencies and local officials.

The methodology used in this study is intended for use by state, regional and local agencies in developing and implementing strategies to reduce NPS loadings in the watershed. The project methodology provides a framework for the development and implementation of pollution load reduction goals, total maximum daily loads, best management practices, land development regulations, land preservation and acquisition, water quality protection and watershed management goals. Targeting stormwater treatment and compliance with recommended forestry, agriculture and urban best management practices would reduce NPS loadings into St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers and ultimately Apalachee Bay. These efforts should include education for homeowners regarding BMPs.

The St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers land use and nonpoint source assessment should be used by local governments in their planning and development review processes. In areas proposed for development, the existing land use map can be used as the first step in performing a land suitability analysis. Local governments can identify specific existing land use/ land cover categories to be used as "red flags" when these land cover types occur in an area proposed for development. Any proposed land use change should consider NPS impacts which may occur from the new land use. Maintaining native forests and well managed silviculture uses will result in lower NPS loads than if these lands are converted to agriculture or urban uses.

Local governments can minimize nonpoint pollution through growth management. Local government comprehensive plans address land use by designating future land uses, while development regulations address ways the land may be developed within each particular land use category. Land use designations in local government comprehensive plans should reflect the future land uses that local governments believe will serve the future needs of its jurisdiction. The reasons for designating a given parcel or area under a particular future land use category can be quite varied, and typically include consideration of criteria such as the physical features of the land, including development constraints; access to services such as schools, roads, sewers, and central water systems; and location in relationship to urban areas. Local governments may want to preserve the rural character of certain areas or may want to encourage urbanization of fringe areas around existing urban centers.

Local government comprehensive plans should include density and land use restrictions which allow only land uses which are compatible with protecting natural resources and water quality within the greenway. One way this can be accomplished is by designating the greenway as a special conservation area on the Future Land Use Map and controlling land use to protect the greenway. Commercial, industrial, and high-density residential uses may not be appropriate for these areas based on high NPS pollution loading potential of these uses.

When designating future land uses for riverine areas within the watershed, the effect of such designations upon the water resources and quality must be considered. Future land use designations which restrict development for the purpose of protecting water resources and wildlife habitat are clearly in the public interest. Requests to change watershed land use designations to allow more intense uses must be carefully reviewed for possible impacts to the resources.

Because of the impacts likely to result from land use conversions, it is recommended that the intensity of land uses within the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers watershed not be increased in the local comprehensive plans. Retaining lands in silviculture and very low-density rural residential uses (in the future) will have the least impact on water quality. Because of the higher loading rates associated with agricultural uses, conversions of use from silviculture to agriculture should also be strongly discouraged. Local and state governments should provide economic incentives to private landowners to retain low intensity land uses to help minimize nonpoint source water pollution.

The information from this assessment should also be used as baseline data for measuring land use conversions in the watershed. Similar land use assessments could be performed at specific intervals (every five to ten years would be appropriate) to accurately document changes in land use which could impact St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers. These assessments can also provide information which should be used to verify past projections of land development patterns and to help predict future patterns. Nonpoint source pollution loading models should be updated and verified following each land use assessment.

Land development regulations (LDRs) are ordinances of local government which prescribe various conditions which must be adhered to during the development process. LDRs typically address issues such as lot coverage, setbacks, stormwater control, buffers, septic system requirements, flood protection, wetlands preservation, and construction management practices. LDRs also often include additional restrictions for activities in specific geographic areas, such as greenways, which could impact resources that are particularly sensitive, such as rivers, habitat areas and large wetland systems.

Development and implementation of local land development regulations are critical to protecting greenways, since urban activity usually alters the magnitude and effects of hydrology and pollutant loads by increasing impervious areas. Such flooding and stormwater loading problems require that preventive land management measures be an integral part of urban development plans.

Further Studies

Ideally, regional loading rates should be researched and applied to establish site- specific loadings in future studies. The surface water flow patterns and karstic geology within watershed also should be studied to identify relationships between ground and surface waters and any implications for NPS pollution estimation and management.

Literature-based loading rates provide a means of estimating NPS loads. Water quality sampling to establish local loading rates is, however, preferable. Although estimates of NPS loadings based on general runoff water quality data is the least expensive because it requires no field data collection, its accuracy is difficult to verify. Runoff monitoring methods provide best estimates of existing loads, but cannot be used to predict load changes of a changing urban system (Marsalek 1991). The success of simulation models using either of these methods depend on successful calibration.

A comparison of estimated NPS loading values and actual water quality data should

be conducted to assess the applicability of the literature-based NPS loading methodology. Future studies, modelling and mapping should also consider such factors as floodplains in estimating NPS loadings and rate coefficients.

Further studies are necessary to implement Pollution Load Reduction Goals (PLRG) and Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDL). The term TMDL is the end result of a process applied by FDEP and EPA to limit total pollutant loadings discharged into a waterbody to protect critical biological, chemical and physical attributes and maintain the designated use of the waterbody (US EPA 1991).

Intergovernmental Coordination and Implementation

State and local governments should take a proactive role in securing funds to undertake stormwater planning and implementation and implement long-term monitoring of NPS pollution and BMP effectiveness.

St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers Resource Inventory Natural Resources of the Watershed

Geography & Hydrology of the St. Marks River

What is Karst topography?

Carbonate rocks, such as limestone and dolomite are highly vulnerable to chemical weathering and erosion. The distinctive landforms and unique drainage characteristics that result from this weathering are termed karst.

Karst topography including sinkholes, springs, wet/dry depressions, sinkhole lakes and swallow holes (disappearing streams) are common features of limestone and dolomite terrains. Karst features can provide a direct conduit for the introduction of contaminants into the Floridan Aquifer.

The St. Marks River drains 1,180 square miles in the eastern portions Leon and Wakulla counties including eastern Tallahassee, western Jefferson County and southern Thomas County in Georgia (Hand and Paulic 1992 b). The Project' s study area focuses on the portion of the watershed in southern Jefferson, eastern Leon, and Wakulla counties. The St. Marks River flows for 35 miles in Florida before it empties into Apalachee Bay at the Gulf of Mexico. It originates in the north Florida / south Georgia Red Hills Region where the soils are principally clayey-sand. The river is classified as blackwater river. Upstream the river is suspected to be influenced more by overland flow from rainfall (surface water) than by groundwater. The region receives an average of 60 inches of precipitation annually. July is the wettest month with periods of high rain from February to March (FNAI and FDNR 1990).

The St. Marks River has, however, many unique features not typical of a blackwater river. As the St. Marks River flows over the Woodville Karst Plain, it is influenced by many springs and the limestone rock it flows over (Hand and Paulic 1992; and FDNR 1989). The central and southern reaches of the river flow over the Cody Scarp and the Woodville Karst Plain where the underlying limestone lies close to the surface (Hand and Paulic 1992b ). Many springs and sink holes are scattered throughout this area, including many small streams that often flow on the surface for short distances before they disappear into sinks or swallowholes. The river is influenced by groundwater and surface water in these two areas.

Horn Spring and Rhodes Spring are the first major springs along the St. Marks River north of Natural Bridge. At Natural Bridge during normal flow, the St. Marks River flows underground and rises up at St. Marks Spring about one mile south where the water loses much of its dark appearance. The average flow of the St. Marks Spring is 700 cubic feet of water per second (FDNR 1989). From this point on, the St. Marks River begins to resemble a spring fed river flowing 11 miles south to the confluence with the Wakulla River at the Fort San Marcos de Apalachee in the City of St. Marks (for characteristics of spring fed rivers refer to the following section on the Wakulla River). A few smaller springs, such as Newport Spring, feed the river south of the rise. The improved clarity and increase in pH provides better conditions for aquatic plant growth and a more productive fishery in this portion of the river.

Water Quality of the St. Marks River

Water quality is excellent in much of the watershed; however many reaches of the St. Marks River have not been sampled recently (Hand and Paulic 1992b). The portion of the St. Marks River adjacent to the port Town of St. Marks exhibits a number of water quality problems. The section on the northeast end of town from Rattlesnake Branch to the confluence with the Wakulla River on the southwest end of town is influenced by tank farms and barges, a power plant, marinas, waste water effluent and urban stormwater runoff. There have been several major and minor oil spills in the past, and the river bottom sediments in the area are coated with oil (Hand and Paulic 1992b). The St. Marks River is designated as Outstanding Florida Water (OFW) body except for this portion of the river. The OFW designation allows for no further degradation in water quality and is the State of Florida's highest designation of quality for natural water bodies.

Ecology of the St. Marks River

The St. Marks River originates in the hardwood and cypress river swamps in north Florida and a small portion of south Georgia. Rivers, such as the St. Marks, which originate from swamps and bottomland forests are known as blackwater rivers (Ewell 1990). Blackwater rivers originate in areas where there are sandy lowland areas with extensive wetlands with organic soils. These wetlands function as reservoirs, collecting water and overland flow and discharging it into the stream (FNAI and FDNR 1990). The dark tea-colored water originates from the natural organic acids (tannins) resulting from the decay of leaf litter and other organics found in river hardwood and cypress swamps. The water tends to be naturally acidic with a pH of 4.5 to 5.5.. The pH increases as the St. Marks flows through underground caverns downstream at Natural Bridge. The dark water tends to limit aquatic plant growth on the river bottom, however, emergent aquatic plant growth is prevalent along the banks.

The intact bottomland hardwood forest and river swamp corridors along the St. Marks River moderates stream flow and the magnitude of flooding by providing overflow areas for floodwaters to disperse. Streamside vegetation slows flood waters and upland storm water run-off while dispersing the energy associated with the moving water which reduces erosion. The leaf litter and other organic debris associated with the riparian ecosystem combine to form soils that are very porous. These loamy soils act as a sponge to soak up rain water, then slowly release the water back into the riverine system. Vegetation impedes run-off causing it to slow down while increasing infiltration of water into the soils.

The upper reaches of these rivers are influenced by natural stormwater runoff flow and groundwater seepage. The groundwater may contribute to the river flow as much as rainfall, especially in the areas where Karst topography exists (Ewell 1990). These high water table forests experience occasional flooding during heavy rains. The St. Marks River at peak floods often flows over Natural Bridge, flooding much of the surrounding bottomland forest.

The St. Marks River is lined with hardwood and cypress swamps much of entire length of the river, except in areas of silvicultural harvesting and residential development. The associated bottomland forest directly adjacent to the river is characterized by tall hardwood trees such as oaks, maples, elms, and American Beech. Other bottomland forest trees include Loblolly Bay, Southern Magnolia, Swamp Tupelo, Bald Cypress and Sweet Gum. Typical animals found in bottomland forest include the Marbled Salamander, Cotton Mouth Water Moccasin, Eastern Screech Owl, Gray Fox, and White Tailed Deer (FNAI, 1990). Many animal species use the linear nature of these bottomlands for migration and reproduction. Migrating ducks such as the Mallard and Black Ducks often winter in river swamps where they feed on acorns and hickory nuts in the floodplain (Wharton et al. 1977). Listed species that inhabit the river corridor include the endangered Wood Stork, the threatened Bald Eagle, Florida Black Bear, Red - cockaded Woodpecker and species of special concern such as the Limpkin, Osprey, and the Suwannee Bass (FDNR 1989).

Geography - Hydrology of the Wakulla River

The Wakulla River rises from Wakulla Springs and the Floridan Aquifer at Edward Ball Wakulla Springs State Park about 12 miles south of Tallahassee. Wakulla Springs, a first magnitude spring, is one of Florida's highest volume springs providing most of the Wakulla River's average 400 cubic feet per second flow (Hand and Paulic 1992). The Wakulla River flows south for ten miles, to the confluence of the St. Marks River at the port Town of St. Marks. The mineral laden waters originating from deep springs are often devoid of sediments and have a pH of 7.0 to 8.2 (FNAI and FDNR 1990). The clear, cool waters are very conducive for plant growth and other aquatic life.

Wakulla Springs is in the south-central part of the St. Marks basin which is in a highly karstic region of Wakulla County. There are numerous sinks and streams that disappear into the ground to the north and west of the spring. It is widely speculated that there is a strong relationship between the surface waters entering the sinks to the north and the outflow of the springs (Hand and Paulic 1992). These relationships are being researched by the Woodville Karst Plain Project.

Water Quality of the Wakulla River

The Wakulla River is designated an Outstanding Florida Water body by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection. The river has outstanding water quality in the springs and upstream segments (Hand and Paulic 1992 b). However, the water quality index is unknown as of the 1992 Florida Water Quality Assessment 305 (b) Report. Both the Florida Rivers Assessment and the 305 (b) report state that the lower portion of the Wakulla River is threatened by increased growth along the river and lack of adequate buffers along the Wakulla's banks (Hand and Paulic 1992b; FDNR 1989). The lower section of the Wakulla River near the port town of St. Marks has increased algae growth probably resulting from industrial and domestic pollution and nutrient sources (FDNR 1989).

Ecology of the Wakulla River

The Wakulla River is fairly unique to the Panhandle of Florida, because it is one of a few spring fed rivers in northern Florida. Most of Florida's spring fed rivers occur in central and south Florida. There are three different plant communities associated with the Wakulla River. Most of the Wakulla River is lined with a river swamp/bottomland hardwood forest similar to the St. Marks River, although Bald Cypress, Black Gum, and Tupelo trees are more prevalent along the Wakulla River. Upstream the river is lined with cypress and hardwood river swamps, mid stream the river swamps gradually give way to freshwater tidal swamps and near the river's confluence with the St. Marks River, salt marshes begin to appear along the river's edge. In areas where development has occurred, the river swamp has been filled or modified.

Many species of water birds inhabitant the Wakulla River, including the largest and most northern breeding colony of Limpkins. The Limpkin is a species of special concern and is endemic to Florida's spring fed rivers where it feeds on various freshwater snails. Other wading birds inhabiting the river include the Little Blue Heron, Great Blue Heron, White Ibis, Snowy Egret, Tricolor Herons. Other birds found include migratory waterfowl, warblers (Prothonotary, Hooded, Kentucky, and Northern Parula), and the Wakulla Seaside Sparrow. Other animals inhabiting the Wakulla River include the American Alligator and the threatened Bald Eagle and the endangered West Indian Manatee (FDNR 1989). Protected animal species include the Florida Black Bear and the Eastern Indigo Snake. The unique Woodville Cave Crayfish can be found in the underwater caves along the river. Wakulla Springs State Park has preserved habitat for numerous rare and endangered plants. There are over a dozen rare and endangered ferns and orchids found within the protected boundaries of Wakulla Springs State Park (FDNR 1989).

South of the US Highway 98 bridge, the Wakulla River is influenced by the daily tides of Apalachee Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. The ecosystems associated with tidal areas are known as freshwater tidal swamps. The freshwater tidal swamps along the Wakulla River are comprised of Bald Cypress, Tupelo, Cabbage Palm, Sweet Bay Magnolia and Black Gum (Wharton et al 1977).

The Wakulla River flows into the St. Marks River at the Town of St. Marks. The St. Marks River then flows for three miles through the St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge before emptying into Apalachee Bay. The surrounding lands are primarily salt marshes dotted with pine flatwoods islands. The expansive salt marshes of the St .Marks National Wildlife Refuge are a part of the vast salt marshes which stretch approximately 200 miles from Cedar Key to the Ochlockonee Bay (Clewell 1986; FDNR 1989). This nearly beachless coastline is due to the shallow waters and seagrass flats of Gulf of Mexico which absorbs much of the wave energy before it reaches the shoreline (Clewell 1986). These smaller waves do not have the energy to move enough sediment for beach and island formation, but they do allow the creation of the salt marshes.

Recreational Resources of the Watershed

Most of the recreational and economic opportunities of the watershed are closely linked to the natural features and beauty of the Wakulla and St. Marks rivers. The watershed includes many natural features such as the Wakulla Springs and the Leon Sinks Geological Area in the Apalachicola National Forest. The watershed's natural resources draw visitors into the outdoors for fishing, hunting, hiking, swimming, horse-back riding, off-road bicycling, in-line skating, canoeing, and manatee watching. There are numerous trails, parks and quiet areas to spend the afternoon or a few nights in the wilderness (see Figure 8 - St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers Recreational, Historic and Cultural Features). The Florida Greenways Program maintains a database that contains information on the resources found within the region which is available upon request. The following describes the trails, parks and historic sites that are found within the watershed.

Figure 8 St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers Recreational, Historic and Cultural Features

Florida National Scenic Trail

The Florida National Scenic Trail (FNST) meanders for 100 miles through the southern portion of the watershed as it travels through the St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge and the Apalachicola National Forest. It crosses the St. Marks River at the port Town of St. Marks which is located at the southern end of the Tallahassee-St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail. There is no bridge constructed to cross the river, but hikers often find friendly boaters or they make arrangements with a local marina to ferry them across the river. The FNST is co-located for 2.5 miles with the Tallahassee-St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail. The trail continues two miles west along US Highway 98 where it heads over the Wakulla River on the highway bridge before re-entering the Refuge. The Florida Trail must be removed from the US Highway 98 right of way if it is to be eligible for designation as part of the Florida National Scenic Trail. The FNST in the Refuge is designated as a hiking trail, but it is a multi-use trail where it joins with the rail trail. Use data for the FNST has not been collected, but it is actively maintained and used by the volunteer members of the Florida Trail Association.

Tallahassee- St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail

The Tallahassee-St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail is the State of Florida's (DEP) first rail trail. The beginning point for most trail users is the Capital Circle Trailhead located just south of Tallahassee on State Road 363. The trail follows Florida's oldest rail line (operating from 1837 to 1984 as the Tallahassee-St. Marks Railroad) for sixteen miles to the port Town of St. Marks (FDEP 1994). Since its opening the trail has been very popular, receiving up to 170,000 bicyclists, walkers, skaters, and equestrians annually (Moore et al 1992). The Munson Hills off-road bicycling trail is located off the rail-trail one mile south of the Capital Circle trail-head. Southern Trail Riders maintains a horse trail adjacent to the rail-trail. Popular activities on the paved portion of the trail include bicycling, walking and in-line skating. Bicycles and in-line skates can be rented at the Capital Circle trail head. Water fountains can be found along the trail and refreshments and restrooms are found at each end of the trail.

Georgia, Florida and Alabama Rail Trail

The proposed 53 mile long Georgia, Florida and Alabama (GF&A) Rail Trail is in the early stages of planning. The US Forest Service is currently studying the proposed route for its environmental and social impacts under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Once completed the GF&A Rail Trail will connect Tallahassee to Sopchoppy in Wakulla County and Carrabelle on the Gulf of Mexico in Franklin County. The trail skirts the northwestern boundary of the Wakulla River basin in the Apalachicola National Forest.

Wakulla River Canoe Trail

The Wakulla River is a state designated canoe trail used by thousands of people for canoeing, manatee watching, and fishing. TNT Hideaway Canoe Rentals, located at the U.S. 98 bridge, reports renting nearly 2,000 canoes annually for use on the Wakulla River. There is public access at the Upper Bridge on SR 365, the Lower Bridge on US Highway 98, hand-launching at the St. Marks Town Park just upstream of the Fort, and the public boat ramp adjacent to the Fort San Marcos de Apalache State Historic Site in port Town of St. Marks. The Shell Island Fish Camp provides river access at its private boatramp. Canoe rental, shuttle and guide services are available by reservation from the Canoe Shop in Tallahassee and from Gulf Coast Excursions in Panacea. Restrooms and drinking water are available at the fort, TNT Hideaway Canoe Rental and the St. Marks Town Park. Olin Corporation manages a private park and picnic area for its employees along the Wakulla River; 1/2 mile downstream form the U.S. 98 bridge.

St. Marks River

The St. Marks River although not designated as a state canoe trail, but it offers an enjoyable paddle having limited motorboat traffic upstream of the US Highway 98 bridge. The St. Marks River can be accessed at the US Highway 98 Bridge in Newport from the boat ramp and park managed by the Florida Department of Agriculture's Florida Forest Service. The park also offers overnight camping.

Big Bend Historic Saltwater Paddling Trail

The state designated Big Bend Historic Saltwater Paddling Trail follows salt marshes and shallow bays for nearly 150 miles along the Gulf Coast from the St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge to the mouth of the Suwannee River. The trail is not currently marked and there are few developed facilities along its route. Publication of a guidebook describing the trail is planned for 1995.

The Apalachicola National Forest

The Apalachicola National Forest is Florida's largest national forest with 563,986 acres of which 32,000 acres are designated as Wilderness (USDA Forest Service 1994). The eastern portion of the Forest in the Wakulla Ranger District lies within the St. Marks watershed. There are over 680 active Red-cockaded Woodpecker colonies within the forest, making it one of the largest populations of Red-cockaded Woodpeckers in the United States. The Apalachicola National Forest supports a wide variety of recreational opportunities including hunting, fishing, hiking, horse-back riding, canoeing, camping and off- road bicycling. There are 15 developed areas for recreation scattered throughout the Apalachicola National Forest with most of them situated on a lake or a river. There are over 120 miles of hiking and horse trails in the forest (US Forest Service 1994). There were 538,000 visitors enjoying the Apalachicola National Forest in 1993.

The Leon Sinks Geological Area is located in the eastern portion of the Apalachicola National Forest along S.R. 363 near the Leon-Wakulla County line. Leon Sinks has many karst features including wet and dry sinkholes and stream disappearing into a swallohole. There are two loop trails totalling 5.9 miles taking visitors past these unique sink holes, turkey oak scrub habitat, river swamps and pine flatwoods. These trails are open for hikers only. Water and restrooms are available on site.

The St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge

The St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge comprises the entire coastal salt marsh section of the St. Marks Basin. The Refuge is approximately 65,000 acres of saltmarsh, pinelands, turkey oak scrub, and hydric hammocks. The historic St. Marks lighthouse is located at the point near the mouth of the St. Marks River in the Refuge. There is a public boat ramp near the lighthouse. Mounds Pool and Stony Bayou Trail is located along the dike system surrounding the fresh water pools and marshes at the Refuge. The trails are open year round to bicycling, horseback riding and hiking. Bird watching is especially popular from the trails. Many waterfowl can be observed feeding in the fresh water pools and the salt marshes. Small boats and canoes with up to ten horsepower motors are permitted in the pools from March 15 to October 15. The Refuge provides bird watchers, bicyclists, equestrians and hikers many opportunities to see an abundance of wildlife. The Refuge had over 250,000 visitors in 1993.

Edward Ball Wakulla Springs State Park

The 1,500 acre Wakulla Springs State Park surrounds the headwaters of the Wakulla River (FDEP 1994). Picnicking, swimming and snorkeling are popular activities in the park near the head spring. Boat tours are available for tours of the river within the park. Hiking and nature trails also wind through the park's uplands and lowlands. Wakulla Springs State Park is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and there are several historic structures including a 27-room inn and conference center. The historic lodge was constructed in 1937 by Edward Ball and is now operated as a conference center by Florida State University (FDEP 1994). In 1993, nearly 150,000 people visited the park.

Natural Bridge Battlefield State Historic Site

Natural Bridge Battlefield State Historic Site is located at the natural land bridge where the St. Marks River flows underground in southern Leon County. This historic site commemorates a Civil War battle on March 6, 1865. Tallahassee never fell into the Union's hands as a result of the battle. The Battle of Natural Bridge is re-enacted annually at this site. Nearly 16,000 people visited the historic site in 1993.

Fort San Marcos de Apalache State Historic Site

The Spanish Constructed the fort in 1679, at the confluence of the St. Marks and Wakulla Rivers, to control the passage of ships up the rivers and establish a foothold in the region A museum and guided tours are available on the site. There is a picnic area and nature trail at the fort. The Town of St. Marks maintains a public boat ramp adjacent to the fort on the St. Marks River. In 1993, nearly 12,000 people visited Fort San Marcos.

Other Opportunities

The many rural highways in the watershed allow bicyclists the opportunity to tour the watershed's's historical sites and recreational parks. Rural canopy roads in the northern part of the watershed offer tree-shaded touring. East of Williams Road Old St. Augustine is an unpaved canopy road suitable for an enjoyable afternoon of off-road bicycling. Old St. Augustine skirts the watershed's northern boundaries .

The Economic Benefits of Ecotourism in the Watershed

The economic impact of outdoor, resource-based recreation can be substantial. Hundreds of thousand of people use the St. Marks and Wakulla rivers watershed for outdoor recreation and spend millions of dollars on equipment, food and other supplies to pursue their preferred outdoor activities. The national forest and national Wildlife Refuge provide habitat for a wide array of plants and animals. These parks with their many trails draw thousands of people to the region for their outdoor recreation opportunities. Data have been compiled on recreational use of the larger park units. Limited data are available for the canoe trails and the Florida National Scenic Trail. Table 4 provides the use data for the listed parks and trails.

Table 4 - Recreational Use for Selected Areas in the Watershed in 1993

Area or Trail Name Number of Visitors

Apalachicola National Forest 1

538,000

St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge 2

256,658 total visits

25,250

hiking visits

Tallahassee - St. Marks Historic State Trail 3 170,000

Natural Bridge Battlefield State Historic Site 4 15,813

Fort San Marcos de Apalachee State Historic Site 4 11,935

Edward Ball Wakulla Springs State Park 4 142,262

Total Visits 1,134,668

Sources:

1 National Forest in Florida Forest Facts 1993 - visitor days. One visitor day is one person visiting for a 12 hour stay.

2 St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge, US Fish and Wildlife Service 1994.

3 Economic Impacts of Rail Trails, Moore et al, 1992.

4 Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Recreation and Parks 1994. Data are from 1993/1994 fiscal year.

Demographic data collected from the St. Marks National Wildlife Refuge indicates that 41 percent of the visitors came from the local area. The local area is defined as the area within a two hour driving radius from the Refuge Visitor Center which is located near Newport. This means that 59 percent of the visitors are tourist. These data suggest that a relatively high number of the watershed's's resource users are visitors from outside the region.. Further research needs to be undertaken to quantify the number of tourist who use the resources as well as the dollars spent in the Apalachee Region as a result of the Refuge, the Forest and other parks.

Visitor use data were gathered for the watershed's parks (see Figure 9 - Comparative Use Trends) for a five year period and the trend indicates visitor use for the parks and trails is increasing or the same people are using these areas more frequently. Either way, the resources are being used by an increasing number of people on a more frequent basis. This suggests more money may also be spent on equipment rentals/ purchases, food, souvenirs, and lodging.

The Tallahassee - St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail has been studied documents its economic impacts on the community. The results of these studies indicate that the average visitor to the Trail spends $11.00 dollars per person per day. This results in a total annual economic impact of over $1.2 million dollars with $400,000 dollars generated from tourist (Moore et al 1992). The Economic Impacts of Rail Trails further indicated expenditures on durable goods related to the trail ranged from $130 to $250 dollars. These figures are only for the Tallahassee-St. Marks Historic Railroad State Trail. The total economic impact of all the natural outdoor recreation activities is assumed to be even greater.

Fishing is also a significant use of the rivers and the Apalachee Bay. The finfish and shellfish industry is probably the greatest beneficiary of efforts to conserving the greenway in the St. Marks Watershed. The rivers, and ultimately, Apalachee Bay, are the sinks for all the water flowing off the land in the watershed's. Alterations to water quality and river hydrology can negatively impact these fisheries through loss of habitat and other changes to the aquatic ecosystems.

Frederick Bell, a noted economist studying saltwater fishing in Florida, stated that recreational fishing may be as economically important or more important than commercial fishing in the St. Marks Watershed (Bell 1994). Bell's 1993 report on Current and Projected Tourist Demandfor Saltwater Recreational Fisheries is the most complete analysis of recreational saltwater fishing for Florida. This report indicates that the average visitor engaging in saltwater fishing spends $110 daily. The annual impact of the activity on Florida's economy was in excess of $1 billion in 1991 with an additional $62 million in taxes (Bell 1993). Data are not currently available on the economic impact of recreational fishing in the St. Marks, however, Shields Marina reports that an average of 15 to 20 boats use the ramp facilities at their marina on weekdays and 80 to 100 boats are launched on weekends. Shell Island Fish Camp reports an average of 8 to 10 boats launch on the Wakulla River during the week and 15 to 20 on weekends. Most of these boats are recreational fisherman fishing Apalachee Bay and the waters inside the Refuge. Further study of the recreational fishery needs to be conducted to determine the fisheries economic impacts on the community.

According to the "1992 Annual Landings Summary" of the Marine Fisheries Division of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 1,626,656 pounds of finfish were brought in Wakulla County ports that year with a dockside value of $80 million. This included 1,005,781 pounds of Black Mullet ( 62 percent of the catch being caught in over 2,000 trips). The commercial shellfish harvest totaled 1,580,958 pounds, not including shrimp. The shrimp harvest amounted to 33,501 pounds with brown and white shrimp comprising the bulk of the harvest (FDEP 1994).

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